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Equipment, Responsibilities, and Property Development Considerations When Deciding How A Part Gets Formed
Automakers contemplating whether a part is cold stamped or hot formed must consider numerous ramifications impacting multiple departments. Over a series of blogs, we’ll cover some of the considerations that must enter the discussion.
The discussions relative to cold stamping are applicable to any forming operation occurring at room temperature such as roll forming, hydroforming, or conventional stamping. Similarly, hot stamping refers to any set of operations using Press Hardening Steels (or Press Quenched Steels), including those that are roll formed or fluid-formed.
Equipment
There is a well-established infrastructure for cold stamping. New grades benefit from servo presses, especially for those grades where press force and press energy must be considered. Larger press beds may be necessary to accommodate larger parts. As long as these factors are considered, the existing infrastructure is likely sufficient.
Progressive-die presses have tonnage ratings commonly in the range of 630 to 1250 tons at relatively high stroke rates. Transfer presses, typically ranging from 800 to 2500 tons, operate at relatively lower stroke rates. Power requirements can vary between 75 kW (630 tons) to 350 kW (2500 tons). Recent transfer press installations of approximately 3000 tons capacity allow for processing of an expanded range of higher strength steels.
Hot stamping requires a high-tonnage servo-driven press (approximately 1000 ton force capacity) with a 3 meter by 2 meter bolster, fed by either a roller-hearth furnace more than 30 m long or a multi-chamber furnace. Press hardened steels need to be heated to 900 °C for full austenitization in order to achieve a uniform consistent phase, and this contributes to energy requirements often exceeding 2 MW.
Integrating multiple functions into fewer parts leads to part consolidation. Accommodating large laser-welded parts such as combined front and rear door rings expands the need for even wider furnaces, higher-tonnage presses, and larger bolster dimensions.
Blanking of coils used in the PHS process occurs before the hardening step, so forces are low. Post-hardening trimming usually requires laser cutting, or possibly mechanical cutting if some processing was done to soften the areas of interest.
That contrasts with the blanking and trimming of high strength cold-forming grades. Except for the highest strength cold forming grades, both blanking and trimming tonnage requirements are sufficiently low that conventional mechanical cutting is used on the vast majority of parts. Cut edge quality and uniformity greatly impact the edge stretchability that may lead to unexpected fracture.
Responsibilities
Most cold stamped parts going into a given body-in-white are formed by a tier supplier. In contrast, some automakers create the vast majority of their hot stamped parts in-house, while others rely on their tier suppliers to provide hot stamped components. The number of qualified suppliers capable of producing hot stamped parts is markedly smaller than the number of cold stamping part suppliers.
Hot stamping is more complex than just adding heat to a cold stamping process. Suppliers of cold stamped parts are responsible for forming a dimensionally accurate part, assuming the steel supplier provides sheet metal with the required tensile properties achieved with a targeted microstructure.
Suppliers of hot stamped parts are also responsible for producing a dimensionally accurate part, but have additional responsibility for developing the microstructure and tensile properties of that part from a general steel chemistry typically described as 22MnB5.
Property Development
Independent of which company creates the hot formed part, appropriate quality assurance practices must be in place. With cold stamped parts, steel is produced to meet the minimum requirements for that grade, so routine property testing of the formed part is usually not performed. This is in contrast to hot stamped parts, where the local quench rate has a direct effect on tensile properties after forming. If any portion of the part is not quenched faster than the critical cooling rate, the targeted mechanical properties will not be met and part performance can be compromised. Many companies have a standard practice of testing multiple areas on samples pulled every run. It’s critical that these tested areas are representative of the entire part. For example, on the top of a hat-section profile where there is good contact between the punch and cavity, heat extraction is likely uniform and consistent. However, on the vertical sidewalls, getting sufficient contact between the sheet metal and the tooling is more challenging. As a result, the reduced heat extraction may limit the strengthening effect due to an insufficient quench rate.
For more information, see our Press Hardened Steel Primer to learn more about PHS grades and processing!
Thanks are given to Eren Billur, Ph.D., Billur MetalForm for his contributions to the Equipment section, as well as many of the webpages relating to Press Hardening Steels at www.AHSSinsights.org.
Danny Schaeffler is the Metallurgy and Forming Technical Editor of the AHSS Applications Guidelines available from WorldAutoSteel. He is founder and President of Engineering Quality Solutions (EQS). Danny wrote the monthly “Science of Forming” and “Metal Matters” column for Metalforming Magazine, and provides seminars on sheet metal formability for Auto/Steel Partnership and the Precision Metalforming Association. He has written for Stamping Journal and The Fabricator, and has lectured at FabTech. Danny is passionate about training new and experienced employees at manufacturing companies about how sheet metal properties impact their forming success.
![Defining Steels]()
Metallurgy
Basis
There are different ways to classify automotive steels. One is a metallurgical designation providing some process information. Common designations include lower-strength steels (interstitial-free and mild steels); conventional high strength steels, such as bake hardenable and high-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA); and Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) such as dual phase and transformation-induced plasticity steels. Additional higher strength steels include press hardening steels and steels designed for unique applications that have improved edge stretch and stretch bending characteristics.
A second classification method important to part designers is strength of the steel. This document will use the general terms HSLA and AHSS to designate all higher strength steels. The principal difference between conventional HSLA steels and AHSS is their microstructure. Conventional HSLA steels are single-phase ferritic steels with a potential for some pearlite in C-Mn steels. AHSS are primarily steels with a multiphase microstructure containing one or more phases other than ferrite, pearlite, or cementite – for example martensite, bainite, austenite, and/or retained austenite in quantities sufficient to produce unique mechanical properties. Some types of AHSS have a higher strain hardening capacity resulting in a strength-ductility balance superior to conventional steels. Other types have ultra-high yield and tensile strengths and show a bake hardening behavior.
AHSS include all martensitic and multiphase steels having a minimum specified tensile strength of at least 440 MPa. Those steels with very high minimum specified tensile strength are sometimes referred to as Ultra High Strength Steels (UHSS). Several companies choose 980 MPa as the threshold where “Ultra” high strength begins, while others use higher thresholds of 1180 MPa or 1270 MPa. There is no generally accepted definition among the producers or users of the product. The difference between AHSS and UHSS is in terminology only – they are not separate products. The actions taken by the manufacturing community to form, join, or process is ultimately a function of the steel grade, thickness, and mechanical properties. Whether these steels are called “Advanced” or “Ultra” does not impact the technical response.
Third Generation, or 3rd Gen, AHSS builds on the previously developed 1st Gen AHSS (DP, TRIP, CP, MS, and PHS) and 2nd Gen AHSS (TWIP), with global commercialization starting around 2020. 3rd Gen AHSS are multi-phase steels engineered to develop enhanced formability as measured in tensile, sheared edge, and/or bending tests. Typically, these steels rely on retained austenite in a bainite or martensite matrix and potentially some amount of ferrite and/or precipitates, all in specific proportions and distributions, to develop these enhanced properties.
Nomenclature
Historically, HSLA steels were described by their minimum yield strength. Depending on the region, the units may have been ksi or MPa, meaning that HSLA 50 and HSLA 340 both describe a High Strength Low Alloy steel with a minimum yield strength of 50 ksi = 50,000 psi ≈ 340 MPa. Although not possible to tell from this syntax, many of the specifications stated that the minimum tensile strength was 70 MPa to 80 MPa greater than the minimum yield strength.
Development of the initial AHSS grades evolved such that they were described by their metallurgical approach and minimum tensile strength, such as using DP590 to describe a dual phase steel with 590 MPa tensile strength. Furthermore, when Advanced High Strength Steels were first commercialized, there was often only one option for a given metallurgical type and tensile strength level. Now, for example, there are multiple distinct dual phase grades with a minimum 980 MPa tensile strength, each with different yield strength or formability.
To highlight these different characteristics throughout this website, each steel grade is identified by whether it is hot rolled or cold rolled, minimum yield strength (in MPa), minimum tensile strength (in MPa), and metallurgical type. Table 1 lists different types of steels.
Table 1: Different Types of Steels and Associated Abbreviations.
As an example, CR-500Y780T-DP describes a cold rolled dual phase steel with 500 MPa minimum yield strength and 780 MPa minimum ultimate tensile strength. There is also another grade with the same minimum UTS, but lower yield strength: CR440Y780T-DP. If the syntax is simply DP780, the reader should assume either that the referenced study did not distinguish between the variants or that the issues described in that section applies to all variants of a dual phase steel with a minimum 780 MPa tensile strength.
Another syntax issue is the presentation of the strength (yield or tensile), and whether it is rounded to the nearest 10 or 50 MPa. For example, consider DP980 compared with DP1000. Both forms represent essentially the same grade. In Europe, this steel may be described as having a tensile strength of 100 kgf/mm2, corresponding to 981 N/mm2 (981 MPa), and expressed as DP980. In Asia, the steel may be referred to as 100K (an abbreviation for 100 kgf/mm2). In other parts of the world, it may be rounded to nearest 50 MPa, as DP 1000. This naming approach applies to many grades, with some shown in Table 2. In some cases, although the OEM specification may list the steel as DP800 (for example), the minimum tensile strength requirement may still be 780 MPa. Furthermore, independent of the chosen naming syntax, the steel company will supply to the actual specification requirements, and will use different process controls to meet a 780 MPa minimum compared with an 800 MPa minimum.
Table 2: Syntax Related to AHSS Strength Levels
Press hardening steels sometimes require a different syntax. Some OEMs will use a similar terminology as described above. For example: CR-950Y1300T-PH (PH stands for Press Hardenable or Press Hardened) or CR-950Y1300T-MB (MB stands for Manganese-Boron steel) can describe the same cold rolled press hardening steel with 950 MPa minimum yield strength and 1300 MPa minimum tensile strength after completing the press hardening operation. Other specifications may show suffixes which highlight the forming process used, such as -DS for direct hot stamping, -IS for indirect hot stamping and MS for a multi-step process. Furthermore, sources may describe this product focused on its typical tensile strength as PHS1500T. The abbreviation PQS (Press Quenched Steel) is typically used for grades that do not harden after hot stamping. These may be noted as PQS450 and PQS550, where the numbers stand for the approximate minimum tensile strength after the hot stamping cycle (see the section on Grades With Higher Ductility on the linked page).
Graphical Presentation
Generally, elongation (a measure of ductility) decreases as strength increases. Plotting elongation on the vertical axis and strength on the horizontal axis leads to a graph starting in the upper left (high elongation, lower strength) and progressing to the lower right (lower elongation, higher strength). This shape led to the colloquial description of calling this the banana diagram.
Figure 1: A generic “banana” diagram comparing strength and elongation.
With the continued development of advanced steel options, it is no longer appropriate to describe the plethora of options as being in the shape of a banana. Instead, with new grades filling the upper right portion (see Figure 2), perhaps it is more accurate to describe this as the football diagram as the options now start to fall into the shape of an American or Rugby Football. Officially, it is known as the steel Global Formability Diagram.
Even this approach has its limitations. Elongation is only one measure of ductility. Other ductility parameters are increasingly important with AHSS grades, such as hole expansion and bendability. BillurB-61 proposed a diagram comparing the bend angle determined from the VDA238-100 testV-4 with the yield strength for various press hardened and press quenched steels.
Figure 3: VDA Bending Angle typically decreases with increasing yield strength of PHS/PQS grades.B-61
Figure 4 shows a local/global formability map sometimes referred to as the Hance Diagram named after the researcher who proposed it.H-16 This diagram combines measures of local formability (characterized by true fracture strain) and global formability (characterized by uniform elongation), providing insight on different characteristics associated with many steel grades and helping with application-specific material grade selection. For example, if good trim conditions still create edge splits, selecting materials higher on the vertical axis may help address the edge-cracking problems. Likewise, global formability necking or splitting issues can be solved by using grades further to the right on the horizontal axis.
Figure 4: The Local/Global Formability Map combines measures of local formability (true fracture strain) and global formability (uniform elongation) to highlight the relative characteristics of different grades. In this version from Citation D-12, the colors distinguish different options at each tensile strength level.
Grade Portfolio
Previous AHSS Application Guidelines showcased a materials portfolio driven by the FutureSteelVehicle (FSV) program, with more than twenty new grades of AHSS acknowledged as commercially available by 2020. The AHSS materials portfolio continues to grow, as the steel industry responds to requirements for high strength, lightweight steels. Table 3 reflects available AHSS grades as well as grades under development and nearing commercial application. The Steel Grades page provides details about these grades and their applications.
Table 3: Commercially available AHSS Grades and grades under development for near-term application. Grade names shown in Italicized Bold were available in FutureSteelVehicle. For all but PQS/PHS, Grade Name indicates the minimum yield strength, minimum tensile strength, and the type of AHSS. The min EL column indicates a typical minimum total elongation value, which may vary based on test sample shape, gauge length, and thickness. PQS/PHS grade name indicates nominal tensile strength.
Global automakers create steel specification criteria suited for their vehicle targets, manufacturing infrastructure, and other constraints. Although similar specifications exist at other companies, perfect overlap of all specifications is unlikely. Global steelmakers have different equipment, production capabilities, and commercial availability.
Minimum or typical mechanical properties shown on this web page and throughout this site illustrates the broad range of AHSS grades that may be available. Properties of hot rolled steels can differ from cold rolled steels. Coating processes like hot dip galvanizing or galvannealing subjects the base metal to different thermal cycles that affect final properties. Test procedures and requirements have a regional or OEM influence, such as preference to using tensile test gauge length of 50 mm or 80 mm, or specifying minimum property values parallel or perpendicular to the rolling direction.
Steel users must communicate directly with individual steel companies to determine specific grade availability and the specific associated parameters and properties, such as:
- Chemical composition specifications,
- Mechanical properties and ranges,
- Thickness and width capabilities,
- Hot-rolled, cold-rolled, and coating availability,
- Joining characteristics.
