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The mild steel currently being used for sheet metal stampings has higher n-values than High Strength Low Alloy Steel and Advanced High Strength Steel. The high n-value indicates that the material has a higher work hardening exponent making the steel much easier to stretch or form. The n-value describes how the material works together to resist localized fractures as stresses are applied. High strain patterns can be created in localized areas such as character lines and embossments. This strain pattern creates strain peaks or strain gradients. These strain peaks have much higher plastic deformation than areas on the rest of the material. The localized strain will cause the material to thin as it forms the character line or embossment. The die geometry does not allow the material to deform in stretch or draw modes, which means the material is in the plane strain mode of deformation on the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD). This deformation mode has the least amount of formability due to the location of the FLD₀anchoring point (See Figure 1).
Figure 1: Benefits of Uniformed Strain Distribution.
What does that mean for your stamping process? Mild steel has the ability to reach a high strain gradient due to higher n-values. High strength steels do not have the ability to reach the higher peak gradients due to lower n-values and less stretchability. These high strain areas will be more susceptible to a greater amount of thinning and/or fractures. If changes in the stamping process occur, such as reduced lube quantity, greater thinning can occur, at times exceeding minimum thickness and resulting in metal fracture. These concerns can be minimized through a better understanding of material capabilities, specific geometry effects, and the use of process recipe discipline. For example, Figure 2 compares the instantaneous n-value for Dual Phase steel, a member of the AHSS family, to HSLA steel. The early n-value increase reflects enhanced local formability, which is observed in stamped parts, contrary to what the typical stress-strain curve does not show the early n-value increase, which reflects enhanced formability in local regions of stamped parts. Other AHSS grades don’t show this tendency but have been developed with greater concentrations of bainite or finer dispersion of martensite within a ferrite matrix; both effects result in better localized forming.
Figure 2: Instantaneous n-values versus strain for DP 350/600 and HSLA 350/450 steels.
Training die makers to understand these effects, while managing die geometry, will have a dramatic effect on the rework, downtime, and scrap associated with a conversion to AHSS products. The use of FLD₀ and formability analysis should identify areas of concern on the stamped part, but should also be coupled with hole expansion testing, or 2-D tension tests to more fully explore the formability condition. When trouble areas have been identified, there should be a review of the analysis and part with T&D managers, die makers, and quality personnel to formulate a corrective action plan. This plan should have specific and measurable direction, buy in, and understanding of the impact that die changes will have to the existing process.
BONUS!
Watch a video of renowned metallurgist Dr. Stuart Keeler explaining AHSS Instantaneous n-value:
Keeler On N-Value from worldautosteel on Vimeo.
Contributions made by Phoenix Group.
Figure 2 Image provided courtesy of Dr. Stuart Keeler.
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Figure 1: Laser Welding is commonly found in these vehicle subsystems.
Laser welding is finding its way into more vehicle applications due to inherent weld strength, adaptability to complex weld geometries, and lower part distortion (Figure 1). Automotive applications use a variety of welding joint designs for laser welding in both lap joint and seam butt joint configurations as shown in Figure 2. For example, laser butt-welding is used for welding tubes in roll-forming production lines as an alternative method for high frequency induction welding. Seam welds on butt joints need less power from the machine than lap joints due to the smaller weld fusion area, producing less distortion and a smaller heat affected zone (HAZ). Butt joint configurations are more cost efficient, however, the fit up for seam welds can be more difficult to obtain than those of lap joints.
Figure 2: Common seam and joint types for laser welding of automotive applications.
When seam welding butt joint configurations, a general guideline for fit-up requirements include a gap of 3-10% the thickness of the thinnest sheet being welded, and an offset of 5-12% thickness of the thinnest sheet. Conversely, lap joints can require a gap of 5-10% the thickness of the top sheet being welded (Figure 3).
Laser welding is often used for AHSS lap (overlap) joints, but of course use different parameters compared to seam butt joint configurations. This type of weld is either a conventional weld with approximately 50% penetration in the bottom sheet or an edge weld. Welding is performed in the same way as for mild steels, but the clamping forces needed for a good joint fit-up are higher with AHSS than for mild steels. Lap joints tend to provide a larger process window, which can compensate for some of the manufacturing difficulties with AHSS, including springback and part distortion.
To achieve good laser-welded overlap joints for Zn-coated AHSS, a small intermittent gap (0.1-0.2 mm) between the sheets is recommended, which is identical to Zn-coated mild steels. In this way, the Zn does not get trapped in the melt, avoiding pores and other imperfections. An excessive gap can create an undesirable underfill on the topside of the weld.
Figure 3: Fit-up requirements for butt joint and lap joint configurations in laser welding.
Studies have shown laser welding Zn-coated steels can be done without using a gap between the overlapped sheets. This is accomplished using dual laser beams. While the first beam is used to heat and evaporate the Zn coating, the second beam performs the welding. The dual laser beam configuration combines two laser-focusing heads using custom-designed fixtures.
AHSS grades can be laser butt-welded and are used in production of tailored products (tailor-welded blanks and tubes). The requirements for edge preparation of AHSS are similar to mild steels – in both cases, a good quality edge and a good fit-up are critical to achieve good quality welds.
If a tailor-welded product is intended for use in a forming operation, a general stretchability test such as the Erichsen Olsen cup test can be used for assessment of the formability of the laser weld. AHSS with tensile strengths up to 800 MPa show good Erichsen test values (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Hardness and stretchability of laser butt welds with two AHSS sheets of the same thickness (Erichsen test values describe the stretchability.)
The hardness of the laser welds for AHSS is higher than for mild steels (Figure 5). However, good stretchability ratios in the Erichsen test can still be achieved when the difference in hardness between weld metal and base metal is only slightly higher for AHSS compared to mild steels. If the hardness of the weld is too high, a post-annealing treatment (using HF-equipment or a second laser scan) may be used to reduce the hardness and improve the stretchability of the weld.
Figure 5: Improved stretchability of AHSS laser welds with an induction heating post-Heat treatment (Testing performed with Erichsen cup test)
Contributed by Menachem Kimchi, Ohio State University
Imagery and work thus represented is provided as follows:
Figure 2 and 3: Courtesy of TRUMPF
Figure 4: H. Beenken, “Joining of AHSS versus Mild Steel,” Processing State-of-the-Art Multi-phase Steel; European Automotive Supplier Conference, Berlin (September 23, 2004).
Figure 5: Courtesy of ThyssenKrupp Stahl.
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Arc welds are normally used for vehicle components where the loads are high, for example in shock towers and engine cradles. Conventional arc welding processes (GMAW, TIG, and plasma) can be used as effectively for AHSS as with mild steels. The same shielding gases can be used for both, and arc weld strength can often be equivalent to the base metal with shorter welds (although increasing the length of the weld usually achieves greater weld strength). By adjusting the number and length (that is the total joined area) of welds, the fatigue strength of the joint can be improved. Fatigue strength of arc welds is generally superior to spot welds.
Figure 1: Martensite content compared to tensile strength.
Despite the increased alloying content used for AHSS, there are no increased arc welding imperfections compared with mild steel. The strength of the welds for AHSS increases with increasing base metal strength and sometimes with decreasing heat input. Depending on the chemical composition of AHSS [for example, mild Steels and DP steels with high martensite content and strength levels more than 800 MPa], the strength of the weld joint may be reduced in comparison to the base metal strength due to small soft zones in HAZ (Figure 1). For CP and TRIP grades, no soft zones occur in HAZ due to the higher alloying content for these steels in comparison to DP and mild steels.
Higher strength filler wires are recommended for welding of AHSS grades with strength levels higher than 800 MPa. It should be noted that higher strength fillers are more expensive and, more importantly, less tolerant to the presence of any weld imperfections. When welding AHSS to lower strength or mild steel, it is recommended that filler wire with 70 ksi (483 MPa) strength be used. Single-sided welded lap joints are normally used in the automotive industry, but due to the unsymmetrical loading and the extra bending moment associated with this type of joint, the strength of this lap joint is lower than that of the butt joint.
Gap Control
Figure 2: Joint design tolerance.
For automotive applications, a design gap tolerance (G) of 0-0.5 mm is allowed for all weld joints, as illustrated in Figure 2. An edge trim tolerance (Et) of ±0.5 mm is required where the edge is part of the weld joint, shown in this same figure.
Figure 3: Edge location tolerance for fillet weld in a lap joint.
The variation in edge location causes variation in alignment of the electrode wire with the weld joint, as shown in Figure 3. Misalignment of the electrode may cause poor weld shape, improper fusion and burn-though. To control this variable, the trim tolerance at the weld joint must be held to ±0.5 mm and the electrode must maintain a root joint alignment tolerance of ±0.5 mm.
Figure 4: Maximum GMAW welding gap.
A tolerance stack-up review must be performed on all GMAW joints. The worst-case maximum designed gap including tolerance stack-up shall not exceed what is listed in Figure 4. It is preferable to target the smallest possible gap (the thickness of the thinnest sheet or 1.5 mm, whichever is smaller).
Figure 5: Reducing weld stress concentrations.
High-stress areas defined by CAE analysis and/or functional testing should be reviewed for weld optimization. Figure 5 illustrates techniques used to reduce the fillet weld stress concentration, which results in improved weld performance. These techniques include placing the weld start/stop away from corners and other high-stress areas, avoiding abrupt weld line direction changes when possible, etc.
Figure 6: Intermittent fillet weld spacing.
Intermittent Welds – Intermittent welds can be employed as a method to reduce heat input and distortion (maintaining gap control), but they also introduce weld starts and weld stops, both of which are stress risers. Weld start/stops of intermittent welds should be placed away from high stress areas. Intermittent welds are specified by the center-to-center distance (i.e., pitch) and weld length, as shown in Figure 6.
Contributed by Menachem Kimchi, Ohio State University
Imagery and work thus represented is provided courtesy of Auto/Steel Partnership and AET Integration.
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Typical Stress-Strain Curve
For many years, steel producers and stamping plants have gathered the mechanical properties of sheet metal. Individuals recorded properties such as yield strength, n-value and R-value to name a few. As new materials are introduced into the stamping plants, new mechanical properties tests are being discussed. The current use of aluminum and Dual Phase steels has highlighted issues that were insufficiently described by the typical or standard values provided by the tensile test: edge cracking and variation in springback from run to run are two examples. Resulting outcomes can encompass excessive scrap, excessive re-working of parts to remove edge cracks, and even result in excessive downtime as die makers try to correct the issue. The introduction of increasingly complex and sophisticated materials will exacerbate the inefficiencies of the current stamping process. The learning curve can be frustrating.
Proper training for your workforce regarding material mechanical properties and the know-how to develop robust stamping recipes for Advanced High-Strength Steel (AHSS) will benefit the plant. The typical tensile test provides the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, n-value, uniform and total elongation. And typically, a strain analysis is performed, producing a forming limit diagram to measure a material’s formability. But these tests are reflective of global forming behaviors and don’t adequately describe an advanced material’s performance in localized formability. We need to ask if typical mechanical properties provide adequate information to truly assess the impact to the stamping operation – and if not, what new tests will provide insight on how these materials react to certain forming loads.
Instantaneous n-value
A new output is instantaneous n-value. Instantaneous n-value identifies the strain gradient – how the material will work-harden at initial contact with the die geometry. If only the standard n-value (work hardening exponent) is observed, measured between 10% and 20% strain, the increase in work hardening that occurs during deformation will be missed. Hole expansion and three-point bend tests are now commonly performed. The hole expansion test identifies the materials ability to stretch at the sheared edge. The three-point bend test identifies the stretchablity of a material via the minimum bend radius that can be achieved for that specific material.
Focusing on AHSS, these materials are characterized by multiple phase structures designed to improve formability. These designer steels are being created to improve crash worthiness through higher strength and lighter gauge thicknesses. To build upon the current understanding of material mechanical properties and resulting forming behaviors, training on AHSS products, testing and stamping process countermeasures is encouraged.
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